2
See Bol (1992). Bol's is so far the most complete
examination of the Tang-Song transition from the
perspective of intellectual history, although it leaves
out the Five Dynasties and early Song periods. Hartman
(1986) examines Han Yu as a seminal figure for the
post-Tang development of Confucian thought. Chen
Ruoshui's work on Liu Zongyuan (1992) has also greatly
enhanced the idea of the mid-Tang as a turning point in
Chinese intellectual history. For an analysis of the Song
elite, see Hymes and Shirokauer (1993) and Hymes
(1986).
3
A military rebellion staged by a military governor of
non-Chinese origin. In 755 An Lushan marched on the
capital Chang'an, forcing Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712-756)
to escape west. The rebellion had disastrous
consequences, as the loyalist armies sent to sedate it
and the rebellious military leaders took control over
vast portions of territory. Eventually the government was
forced to install the rebels as semi-independent
governors, thereby losing both land and tax
revenues.
4
This was the main poetic genre of the Chinese tradition.
It traced its origin to the poems of the Shijing (Book
of Odes), a collection of folk songs, and ceremonial
and sacrificial hymns dating from the early Zhou period
(12th century B.C.) to approximately 600 B.C. The Book
of Odes, since very ancient times, had been part of
the learning curriculum of the elite. Likewise, poetry
writing had been an activity closely associated with the
literati and members of the bureaucracy since pre-Han
times (202 B.C.-220 A.D.).
5
That is, the tradition of learning that originated in
pre-imperial China, of which Confucius (551-479 B.C.) is
considered the founder. The term ru likely referred to a
group of people "who were experts in and teachers of the
civil aspects of the cultural heritage." The school
advocated the restoration of the culture and social order
of the declining Zhou Dynasty (1154-221B.C.) and in
particular of its rites (li) as a means to establish
social harmony. The ru school had at its center a textual
tradition of which the so-called "Classics" (a group of
texts or traditions originating during the Zhou, but that
reached their final form during the Han Dynasty) formed
the canonical works. These were: the Book of Odes
(Shijing), Book of Changes (Yijing), Spring and Autumn
Annals (Chunqiu), Book of Documents (Shujing), and Book
of Rites (Yili and Liji.) One of the school's central
ideas, one that would become paramount for Confucian
thinkers of later generations, was that government
officials should be selected on the base of their moral
stature and education. See Schwartz (1985). 10
Translated in Owen (1992: 40,43, 45-6).
6
The term guwen, variously translated as "ancient
style prose" or "literature of antiquity" (from
gu: ancient, and wen: prose or literature)
identifies an intellectual and literary movement of the
early ninth century. Its main spokesman was the statesman
and writer Han Yu (768-824). The movement developed as
reaction to the political and cultural crisis of the
post-rebellion period. Starting from the conviction that
the Confucian heritage possessed the tools to solve the
crisis, its aim was to revitalize Confucianism by going
back to its root traditions. Han Yu saw in the personal,
unmediated approach to the Classics the key element of
this revival. His program included not only institutional
reforms, but also a literary reform that would result in
original writings, expressive of their authors mind and
in harmony with spirit of antiquity.
7
An exception to this kind of approach is Jonathan Chaves'
work on Mei Yaochen, which acknowledges early poetry's
role in the development of Mei's verse (Chaves 1976). A
classical example of dismissive attitude is Yoshikawa
(1967), which basically discounts all early Song poetry
with the partial exception of Wang Yucheng. Recent
literary histories, although less inclined towards
aesthetic judgment, still devote very little space to the
early period. In the last twenty years, however, there
has been a greater interest in the Tang-Song transition
and the early Song, which has produced several articles
in scholarly journals and a few monographic studies on
early Song poets. I have derived considerable help and
insight from the works such as Chen (1982: 131-54); Zhang
(3: 205-34); and Zhao (1996).
8
This was the interim period between the fall of the Tang
and the rise of the Song Dynasty, during which the
country was divided in several small, independent
kingdoms.
9
Designation of part of the division period between the
fall of the Han (220) and the foundation of the Tang
(618). Following the conquest of Northern China by
semi-nomadic northern populations in the 4th century,
part of the population and most of the wealthy
aristocratic families migrated south, establishing a
series of short-lived dynasties with capital in the area
of modern Nanjing. Poetry, that during the Han had been
full of political and moral overtones, became a refined
entertainment for courtiers, the expression of an
aristocracy jealous of its ancient traditions and
privileges. During the Southern Dynasties, poetic writing
tended to emphasize technical skill. The emotions
conveyed in verse referred primarily to romantic love,
while skill in improvising clever and elegant lines was
greatly prized. This was the age of courtly poetry, in
which ruler and courtiers gathered at social events and
composed verses as an elegant pastime. This model of
poetry continued through the early Tang, but was
ultimately condemned by later Confucian-minded literati
as the decadent expression of a period of division and
political weakness.
10
The palace style (gongti) was a sub-genre of court
poetry that originated during the southern dynasty of The
Liang. It described the life of the courtiers, in
particular romantic liaisons. It was characterized by
ornate language, frequent use of allusions and an
increasing regulation of rhyme and prosody.
11 The
yongwu, or poem on things, was a composition
describing the attributes of an object in indirect and
highly allusive language. The object often served to
depict qualities of its owner, who was usually a palace
lady. Therefore, the language adopted in the poems had
often erotic overtones.
12
The locus classicus of this view is to be found in the
Great Preface to the Book of Odes (Shijing), a
document of uncertain authorship datable to the second
half of the Han Dynasties. The Great Preface made
three important points with regard to poetry. Fist, it
defined poetry as the verbal expression of the poet's
aspirations or intentions: "The poem is that to which
what is intently on the mind goes. In the mind it is
'being intent;' coming out in language, it is a poem."
Secondly, it pointed out what the realm of the authorial
intention is: "The affections emerge in sounds; when
those sounds have patterning (wen, a term also
referred to literary expression) they are called 'tones.'
The tones of a well-managed age are at rest and happy;
its government is balanced. The tones of an age of
turmoil are bitter and full of anger; its government is
perverse. The tones of a ruined state are filled with
lament and brooding; its people are in difficulty."
Finally, it explained what the purpose of poetic writing
should be: "Thus to correct [the presentation of]
achievements and failures, to move Heaven and Earth, to
stir gods and spirits, there is nothing more apposite
than poetry. By it the former kings managed the relations
between husbands and wives, perfected the respect due to
parents and superiors, gave depth to human relations,
beautifully taught and transformed the people, and
changed local customs. (...) By feng (one of the
sections of the Book of Odes. The term also has
the meaning of "influence" or "criticism") those above
transform those below; also by feng those below
criticize those above. When an admonition is given that
is governed by patterning (wen), the one who
speaks has no culpability, yet is remains adequate to
warn those who hear it".
13
This was a prestigious institution founded in the Tang
and responsible for drafting imperial documents and
compiling court-sponsored projects. Its members also
served as palace counselors. Their duties required
outstanding literary abilities and a position as
Academician could often lead to high government
posts.
14
The fact that larger sections of the population practiced
poetic writing as pastime or as a form of polite social
intercourse or sometimes as a form of correspondence (a
sort of letter in verses,) is itself a sign of the
diffusion of literati culture. In fact poetry was an art
form traditionally practiced by the literati group in all
the uses enumerated above. The development of printing
technologies also had a strong impact on the popularity
of poetry. It allowed a far greater number of people to
access verse collections and to acquire competence in the
skill of versifying.
15
The main objections raised by the spokesmen for
indigenous tradition against Buddhism, were caused by the
ascetic nature of the doctrine, which was perceived as
antithetical to the social concerns of traditional
culture. The celibacy of the monks, their abandonment of
social ties, their refusal to recognize temporal
hierarchies were in sharp contrast with ancestor worship,
the perpetuation of family line and the respect for
social hierarchies that were at the core of traditional
Chinese society.
16
Liu Zongyuan was another important representative of the
guwen movement.
17
That is the Caoqi dajian chanshi bei. Caoqi was
another name for the so-called southern lineage of Chan
Buddhism. It took its name from the Baolin monastery
located in Caoqi locality, where Hui Neng, the sixth
patriarch of Chan lectured.
18
Ancient philosopher of the Warring States (479-221)
period famous for his doctrine of universal love as a
means to build social harmony.
19
These were compositions imitating the language of the
yuefu tradition. The yuefu was a folk song
that had developed starting from the Han dynasty, in
which love was a frequent topic. This folk tradition had
subsequently been appropriated by poets from the educated
class.
20
Piaoyao was a military title during the Han
Dynasty.
21
The Xiongnu were a northern nomadic people that had
regularly raided the Chinese borders starting from the
Qin Dynasty through the reign of Emperor Wu (r.141-87
B.C.) of the Han. Emperor Wu was finally able to submit
them through massive military expeditions. In the poem
Hui Chong exploits a convention typical of frontier
poems, of referring to current events using analogies
from the past.
22
The Khitan were a proto-Mongol population from the border
of the Manchurian steppe. They had established a kingdom,
called Liao, whose territory infringed on Chinese
soil.
23
This movement, led by the Prime Minister Fan Zhongyan
(989-1052) and other prominent intellectuals like Ouyang
Xiu, called for wide institutional reforms, among which
figured prominently the reform of the educational and
recruitment system.
24
Fire and smoke were forbidden on the festival.
25
From the poem Dui xue. A Remonstrance Official
covered the duty of remonstrating with the emperor for
policies or behavior that were considered improper. See
Hucker (1985: 148, #836).
26
Yang Yi was not the first to have used this kind of
poetic diction. Already in the last part of the Tang
Dynasty, several poets had referred to a similar model.
In fact, Yang was an admirer of the late Tang poet Li
Shangyin (813-58), whose allusive and hermetic language
was an acknowledged influence on his own poetry.
27
"Yang (Yi) and Liu (Yun) in the Hanlin Academy composed
the Xuanqu poems. Wang Qinruo secretly
memorialized the throne, viewing the poems as lodging
criticism." In Jiang Xiufu, Miscellaneous Records of
the Jiayou period (1055-1063). Quoted in Li (1979:
1589).
28
On the question of Zhenzong's preference for simplicity
of style see Wen Ying, Yuhu qinghua: "When the
Auxiliary Academician of the Bureau of Military Affairs
Liu Zong was appointed on garrison duty in Bingmen, the
two drafting groups (i.e. Hanlin Academicians or Inner
Drafters and the Outer Drafters affiliated with the
Secretariat) and the members of the Academies and
Institutes all composed poetry to grace his journey and
presented it to the emperor. Zhenzong investigated
thoroughly poetic elegance (ya) and at the time
especially opposed the Xikun style, eliminating crafted
(lines). He personally used the imperial brush to select
the plain and simple ones (pingdan), only
obtaining eight couplets." In Chen (1996: 187-8).
29
Allusions to court poets or to outspoken court
counselors, as well as attacks to sycophants and
impostors appear often in his historical poems. For the
interpretation of such allusions see D'Argenio (2003:
129-71).
30
Other factors, such as economic means, may have prevented
people from humble background from participating and
passing the exams. But when compared with earlier periods
the early Song still saw among the highest numbers of
officials recruited through the examination system,
rather than on the basis of their family back ground.
31
There is concrete evidence of the fact that Wang Yucheng
was an inspirational figure for various Northern Song
Intellectuals and reformers. For example, in Wang's
collected works one finds a "Discourse on Parties"
(Pengdanglun) which makes the same fundamental
points as Ouyang Xiu's discourse by the same title;
namely, that it is natural for superior men to stick
together and form a party for the defense of higher
goals. By the same token, inferior men stick together to
protect their own interests. It is the sovereign who has
to be able to distinguish between parties of gentlemen
and parties of inferior men. See Wang (1969, 210-11);
Ouyang (1994: 124). Ouyang has also two poems imitating
Wang's composition about olives translated above. One,
although more elaborate in form, essentially reproduces
the same comparison found in Wang Yucheng's earlier poem
between the sour taste of olives and the words of the
loyal minister. See Wang (1969: 62), Ouyang (1994:
29-30).